Environmental costs of lithium batteries boost innovation for new energy sources

Today, most of the world’s rechargeable batteries are built with lithium-ion technology, which often relies on rare earth metals like cobalt and nickel for its electrodes. However, as demand surges—especially from the electric vehicle industry—scientists around the globe are working to develop cleaner, more sustainable battery alternatives.

Lithium-ion batteries first emerged in the 1990s and revolutionised energy storage, says Laurence Hardwick, professor of electrochemistry at the University of Liverpool. Their commercial rise coincided with the explosion of mobile electronics. But now, their central role in electric vehicles presents serious scalability challenges, particularly because of their dependence on limited and environmentally costly minerals.

Lithium and cobalt remain essential components in technologies critical to the green transition, from EVs to wind turbines and solar power. Yet mining these elements, while less harmful than fossil fuel extraction, carries significant environmental costs—ranging from pollution and land degradation to the risk of contaminating water supplies due to energy-intensive processes.

Water usage is one of the most pressing concerns tied to lithium production. According to an article published by Greenly, it takes an estimated 2.2 million litres of water to produce just one ton of lithium—diverting vital water from agriculture and indigenous communities. Additionally, the process damages soil, making the land infertile and disrupting ecosystems.

Nowhere is this impact more pronounced than in South America’s “Lithium Triangle,” a region covering parts of Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In Chile’s Salar de Atacama alone, lithium mining consumes around 21 million litres of water daily—about 65% of the region’s total supply—leading to water shortages and ecological distress.

Contamination is another major threat. In 2009, toxic chemical leaks from China’s Ganzizhou Rongda Lithium mine polluted the Liqi River in Tibet. Locals accused the company of poisoning the water, killing large numbers of fish and livestock, and devastating sacred grasslands.

As director of the Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, Hardwick is investigating alternative materials that could either replace or complement lithium, easing reliance on rare earths. He told reporters for The Conversation publication that one promising option is solid-state batteries, which use solid ceramic materials instead of liquid solvents to move ions. These batteries offer both higher energy density and improved safety.

Another alternative is sodium-ion technology. Robert Armstrong, a chemistry researcher at the University of St Andrews, is part of a UK team studying the performance of sodium-ion batteries. While sodium ions are heavier than lithium, they are widely available and offer more stable pricing and supply. Armstrong points out that sodium's abundance could reduce supply chain volatility.

Chinese companies like BYD and CATL are already advancing sodium-ion batteries for EVs, despite their extra weight. There is also growing interest in sodium-based storage in Gulf countries that operate desalination plants, where sodium is an abundant byproduct. “Why not put that sodium to use?” says Armstrong.

Organic batteries

Meanwhile, other researchers are exploring biodegradable battery technology. At Stanford University, PhD student Bill Yen and his team are working on Terracell—a battery powered by microbes in the soil. Designed for environmental sensors in wet areas, Terracell minimises long-term waste and recently won the energy category at the 2024 Prototypes for Humanity event in Dubai.

Also at the event was Professor Ulugbek Azimov from Northumbria University, who is developing BioPower Cells—rechargeable batteries made from organic waste, including used coffee grounds. These batteries are entirely free of rare earth materials and can be safely decomposed. “At the end of their life, you just drop them in boiling water, and they dissolve into an ionic liquid fertilizer,” Azimov explained.

By Nazrin Sadigova